Although there is no shortage of research covering media delivery issues within video lectures, it remains unclear as to the extent of these issues within online university courses. This study provides an account of the number of students from this study who experience common media delivery issues discussed in research, and to what extent they experience each categorized media issue. This gives us a sense of what takes place within this specific study of online university students in South Korea, with 27% of those who provided comments on their experiences claiming they experienced media-related issues. This discussion outlines common issues that may be found in online learning environments. The present study adds to the field of education technology research by looking at media delivery from a broad student-focused perspective. Furthermore, solutions with theoretical justifications are provided to help improve teaching and learning in situations where instruction media is used online.
Quality and intelligibility
Among all of the complaints, quality issues were of the utmost concern (34%) followed by intelligibility (23%), pace (20%), media diversity (17%), and congruence (6%) issues in that order. Although no specific data was found in existing research that showed what percentage of online learning perceive quality issues as a problem, it does make sense that this would be a major category of concern due to the fact that the quality of video lectures is of critical importance when it comes to engaging with them (Molnar, 2017; Molnar et al., 2013). Because the quality of media used in video lectures is a noticeable factor during literally every moment of the lesson, a case can be made that it is what they perceive first and foremost, and therefore problems with it may be more abundant than other factors. That makes it all the more critical for e-learning instructors to deliver content through the use of good quality media. The same can be said about intelligibility, which received the second highest number of complaints. At every moment of the video lecture, the content is either intelligible or not, and the fact that within the sample of this study, participants found this to be a significant issue should bring attention to potential solutions to intelligible media problems.
Pace
Like quality and intelligibility, research has not been found regarding the amount of online learners who have issues with the pace of the content delivered through instructional media. However, the fact that 20% of the complaints were categorized as pace may be reflective of the fact that other research has shown that the pace of media-based content delivery is one of the top priorities among online learners (Kwon, Saparova, & Hoffman, 2015). Because of this reason, students may be sensitive to issues involving pace due to the importance they place on it in regard to their learning.
Media diversity and congruence
Regarding the relatively few complaints about issues with media diversity, this may be due to the increasing usage of multiple media sources throughout an average video lecture (Costley & Lange 2017b), therefore leaving little room for complaints regarding a lack of media diversity. The relatively low amount of congruence complaints was therefore all the more surprising because the more diverse media there is the more problems one would expect to see in the connection between the diverse media. It could be that students may not even realize that multiple sources are actually complicating their cognitive processing if it is actually happening. This would be an interesting direction to take for future research.
Overview of pedagogical implications
In the discussion that follows, we look at specific comments raised by participants of this study that represent common complaints within the five media categories. We not only discuss how students perceive issues with media delivery in online university courses but also discuss pedagogical implications and recommend ways to improve video lectures through effective use of media. This is an important issue within e-learning because extant research shows that although media use in video lectures has its upside, learning can be negatively affected if used in ways that do not promote learning. The following suggestions are a combination of ideas generated from analysis of existing research in addition to ideas developed by the authors of this study. Ultimately, these recommendations should provide a better learning experience for students participating in online university courses.
Speed of materials and learning theories
Media being displayed too quickly can complicate learning processes (Mayer, 2014; Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Wildemuth et al., 2003). Learning from fast-paced media can be complex, as students fail to obtain critical information, often times due to the inability to recognize graphical images and comprehend text because of it (Wildemuth et al., 2003). The lack of comprehension when media are displayed at high rates can be explained through the limited capacity theory, which states the working memory contains a limited capacity to organize and process modality-specific information and therefore cognitive overload can occur when too much information is presented at a high rate of speed (Mayer, 2014). This can create extraneous processing if students are required to go back and process information that they missed the first time around because it was delivered too fast (Mayer, 2014). While media delivered at too high of a rate can create cognitive processing issues, media that are too slow may cause what is known as a reversal effect. This occurs when learners are capable of understanding the material, but their learning is negatively affected as they become disengaged due to the slow delivery (Koumi, 2013). This is particularly the case when instructor speech is perceived by students as delivering verbal information at too slow of a rate (Koumi, 2013).
Instructional segmentation
The use of video segmentation is recommended for dealing with either auditory or visual media being delivered too fast. Segmentation allows learners to watch a video lecture separated into predetermined segments (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). It essentially acts as a mechanism to slow down the pace of verbal and auditory media, which reduces cognitive load by giving students a series of breaks to process information before moving on to subsequent segments (Fisher et al., 2017; Mayer & Moreno, 2003). A study performed by Doolittle, Bryant, & Chittum (2015) showed that students who received a video lecture separated into 28 manageable segments performed better than students who received a lecture containing the same information but with a significantly reduced number of segments. Although segmentation appears to help reduce cognitive load, it is important to remember that not everybody processes information at the same rate. Information that is segmented into a specific number of segments may be necessary for cognitive load reduction for one student but can create disinterest by another due to an unwanted slower pace (Koumi, 2013). A solution to this issue may be to give even more control over how online learners receive the information. Rather than presenting the content into 16 predetermined segments, for example, the students can be given the option of selecting how many segments they feel they need based on their prior knowledge of the content. This would limit the information needed to manage in each segment for those who need more processing time and allow those who are able to process information at a higher rate to manage longer segments containing more information to be processed before moving on to the next segment.
Incremental speed controls
In response to students becoming disinterested in the content from media delivered at a slow rate, Wildemuth et al. (2003) suggest various levels of speed increments so students can adjust the speed at which the video is presented based on their needs. Their claim is that this user control option is useful because it allows the learner to increase the speed of the media if the content is perceived as easily manageable. This is based on their findings that while a specific speed may be needed for some content that same speed may not be appropriate for other content, as learning at a particular speed varies based on the content. One limitation of their study, however, is that it was conducted on only visual aspects of the video, not auditory aspects. Slowing down the speed of a video containing audio narration creates a problem for users in that it distorts the audio, which contributes to processing issues among the learners due to the cognitive strain placed on trying to understand the distorted audio (Cunningham et al., 2010). A solution to this problem would be to produce multiple versions with the instructor speaking naturally at a different rate per version. The user can then select the video with a specific speed of the instructor’s voice based on their own learning needs, which would in theory avoid any extraneous processing that would take place when trying to decipher distorted speech created by slowing down the speed of one pre-recorded video.
Intelligibility issues and solutions
Small visuals on a screen can negatively affect the desire for learners to put forth the effort to learn, as limited visual perception of small images and text ultimately has a negative effect on one’s attention span (Molnar, 2017). Additionally, small visuals can create extraneous cognitive processing by exerting additional effort to make sense of undersized images or text, which ultimately negatively affecting content comprehension (Mayer, 2014; Maniar et al., 2008). Auditory intelligibility issues run the risk of students not being able to recognize what is being said, which has been shown to cause a decrease in comprehension levels (Pilarski, Alan Johnstone, Pettepher, & Osheroff, 2008). Cunningham et al. (2010) report that when technical issues arise, students tend to rely on accompanying text, but if there is no accompanying text, students are left with no other option but to miss potentially crucial information.
When intelligibility issues arise, user control options can allow students to adjust size as needed. Doing so should address issues raised by unintelligible visuals such as cognitive load and attention problems (Maniar et al., 2008; Shudong, Higgins, & Shima, 2005). Because the preferred size of the text may vary based on the learner, students should be able to choose font size based on preference. This is made possible through user interfaces which assist learners by allowing them to control font size of e-learning presentations (Amigud et al., 2017) There are times where it may not be feasible to fill the entire screen with an embedded video because other portions of the screen may be needed to show additional content through other forms of media such as text, images, or a talking head. This may create issues with students’ perceptions of video size. When visuals in online video lectures create sustainability issues due to lack of size, user control options such as a zoom feature can be added (Maniar et al., 2008). However, this may affect cognitive processing because zooming in too much on one aspect of the video eliminates peripheral features in the video, causing students to rely on their memory to integrate the removed parts of the video to the parts being zoomed in on (Maniar et al., 2008). In this case, Maniar et al. (2008) recommend using simple animations rather than video clips to convey a point if possible. This is because they are a more direct representation of objects compared to more elaborate images and videos that can include distracting and extraneous content that does not contribute to learning (Maniar et al., 2008). However, there may be times when actual video is needed in order to portray essential detail that an animation may lack. In such cases, it would make sense to digitally remove any extraneous text or images in the video in order to prevent excessive extraneous processing.
Audio intelligibility issues and solutions
Regarding audio intelligibility, students in this study complained that they could not hear the professor, even if the sound was turned up. Issues like this can take place when there is only one volume control for the entire sound of the presentation, which includes not only the professor’s voice, but also background noise and music. A solution to such an issue may be to design a learner control option that allows students to control only the volume level of the person who is speaking. This would allow learners to focus on the important aspects of the lecture, while tuning out extraneous sound, resulting in lower levels of cognitive load (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). If technical issues disrupt the sound delivery, instructors should use accompanying text for compensation (Cunningham et al., 2010). Perhaps, this can be done by allowing learners to click on subtitles or some other mechanism that allows text to accompany the narration. An option to either include subtitles or not would be useful based on whether the text is actually needed or not. If the sound delivery is not disrupted, leaving the subtitles in place can create extraneous processing, as learners are faced with processing redundant information from multiple media sources (Mayer, 2014). Therefore, giving them the option of turning the subtitles on only when needed for situations such as sound distortion would avoid any unnecessary cognitive processing.
Visual quality issues and solutions
When poor visual media are delivered, students’ understanding of the content can be negatively affected (Molnar, 2017). Additionally, decrease in concentration due to poor quality video lectures is reflective of the fact that poor visual media quality decreases interest and attention (Molnar et al., 2013). Furthermore, visual media that are not clearly displayed is a critical design flaw, as research has found that students learn better from clear video lectures with higher resolution compared to less clear ones (Molnar, 2017; Molnar et al., 2013). Finally, the use of old videos is problematic for students, as outdated videos have been shown to have a negative effect on engagement which leads to lower levels of learning (Curry et al. n.d.).
Quality concerns found in this study are supported by research that states that poor visual quality of video lectures ultimately decreases attention and levels of understanding among online learners (Molnar, 2017). Instructors need to make sure that the images and videos presented within online lectures are as clear as possible before using them to deliver information. The specific levels of brightness, speed, and number of pixels to be used should ensure the video lecture maintains students’ attention. This is in line with research conducted by Molnar et al. (2013) who found that students had a better learning experience from videos that were clearer due to higher resolution. Existing research has also addressed issues regarding outdated videos. Acknowledging that fashion and styles change over the years, Perko et al. (2008) recommend formative assessments of the videos to make sure they have a contemporary feel to them, which should alleviate distractions from learning.
Increase the amount of media diversity
Students commenting on the lack of media diversity is concerning, as it has been shown in a general sense that the more media diversity used by online instructors, the better students learn (Costley & Lange 2017a, 2017b; Kim et al., 2011). Various forms of media should be used to complement each other in a way that promotes learning in an online environment. Reflective of this notion, the Generative Theory of multimedia learning states that more cognitive connections can be made through the use of both audio and visual media at the same time (Mayer, 2014). Additionally, it has been found that when audio is linked to video, students make sense of the information better than if audio is used alone (Schmidt-Weigand & Scheiter, 2011). Media diversity has been proven to aid the learning process and keep students engaged in the lesson (Costley & Lange 2017a, 2017b; Kim et al., 2011). Rather than providing audio or visuals alone, linking both audio and visuals to complement each other makes for a better learning experience (Schmidt-Weigand & Scheiter, 2011).
Congruence issues and solutions
When using media diversity within video lectures, care needs to be taken to avoid issues with congruence. A common complaint with congruence is when distracting background noise occurs; it becomes more difficult to concentrate on the lecture. This is a problem because adding extraneous sound effects and background noise to a lecture may create unnecessary cognitive processing, which negatively affects learning (Mayer, 2014). Another common issue involving congruence is when different forms of media do not properly sync up with each other. This becomes a problem for learning because extraneous processing occurs when learners attempt to store content delivered by speech in their working memory while at the same time process written text that is lagging behind the speech (Lange & Costley 2019; Leppink et al., 2013). Another common theme regarding media congruence is when students have to split their attention between sources, holding one bit of information from one part of the screen in short term memory and scrolling up to another part of the screen to connect it to another piece of information, for example. Splitting one’s attention between sources in this fashion ultimately distracts learners and diverts cognitive processing to information that does not contribute to learning (Mayer, 2014).
When background noise is distracting the learner from hearing what the instructor is saying, it would be beneficial to provide volume control options that give students the ability to mute background noise if necessary. This differs from traditional sound controls in video lectures in that it allows learners to control the sound of a particular aspect of the lecture rather than the overall sound of the presentation. This will prevent distractions and allow students to focus their cognitive processing on more necessary information being delivered to them by the instructor. It is also imperative that instructors make sure that text is in sync with associated audio. Technical issues such as these need to be avoided. Perhaps summative assessments throughout the semester can ensure that issues such as these do not come into play. Preventing issues with synchronization will ultimately prevent learners from wasting cognitive effort on processes that distract them from the learning process. To avoid issues with the split-attention effect, online instructors should place complementary media sources in close proximity to each other (Mayer, 2014). Doing so would alleviate the need to hold bits of information from one source in the working memory while attempting to locate the accompanying source. If both sources are in close proximity to each other, students are more likely to hold the information from source A before connecting it to source B.