This section presents contexts from the literature about online student success, study habits and engagement. Student engagement can be defined as “a student’s emotional, behavioural and cognitive connection to their study” which has a direct impact on student success and achievement (Kahu, Stephens, Zepke, & Leach, 2014, p. 523). As online degree programmes have lower rates of retention and graduation than campus based undergraduate courses, it is important that a greater understanding of student engagement in the online context is developed (Woodley & Simpson, 2014).
There are a number of interlinked factors reported in the literature which affect online student experiences and retention: time management skills; the ability to balance work, family, etc. with study; autonomy; community; sense of belonging; motivation; course design; and support structures at institutional, programme and teacher levels (Blackmon & Major, 2012; Brown et al., 2015; Buck, 2016; Holder, 2007; Zembylas, Theodorou, & Pavlakis, 2008).
The following sections present contexts from the literature about online student success, study habits and engagement through the lens of Kahu’s (2013) holistic conceptual framework of student engagement. Kahu’s (2013) framework has the student at the centre interacting: the social-cultural context, structural and psycho-social influences, engagement and the proximal and distal consequences, see Fig. 1 below.
In this study, there is a particular focus on the factors which are most relevant to online students, as “when shifting to online contexts, engagement takes on different manifestations, due to the lack of face to face contact and the ways in which teaching and learning are mediated through technology” (O’ Shea et al., 2015, p. 43).
Socio-cultural influences
Recent high level international and Irish policy reports have emphasised the importance of lifelong learning and bringing more adult learners into higher education, through the provision of flexible study options such as online or part-time programmes (European Commission, 2014; Department of Education & Skills, 2011). This strategy has led to a slow growth in the numbers of adult students participating in online higher education (HE) in Ireland. Online learning is more affordable as students can earn as they learn and travel costs are reduced. For these reasons, online learning is important in supporting access to HE for disadvantaged groups (Castaño-Muñoz, Colucci, & Smidt, 2018).
Although access to Irish higher education has increased for adult learners, social inequalities continue to be reproduced, and some groups remain under-represented (Delaney & Farren, 2016). Typically online students in Ireland are older and from lower socio-economic backgrounds, some are upskilling, and many are second chance learners, and there is an intersectionality between these identity categories (Brunton et al., 2018; Delaney & Brown, 2018). Irish online students may have delayed participation in university education for reasons relating to social class (Delaney & Farren, 2016).
Structural influences
For online students, structural influences such as course design significantly impact on their learning experiences. Online student engagement can be supported by a well-designed course which promotes interaction and social presence and creates a clear, purposeful learning journey; efficient use of students’ limited time; linking learning activities to goals; building on existing understanding whilst addressing gaps in understandings; providing immersive, real-world simulations or experiences (Buck, 2016; Frey, 2015). Inappropriately designed online courses and delivery can negatively impact on online student engagement (Stone & O’Shea, 2019).
In Ireland, HE institutional supports such as library, career advice, learning support, administration and counselling services are heavily focused on full time on campus students. This means that online students have reduced access or sometimes no access to vital university supports (Delaney & Farren, 2016; HEA, 2012). This can lead to online students feeling less integrated and engaged with the institution and feeling that they are a lower priority than campus based students (HEA, 2012; O’ Shea et al., 2015; Yang, Baldwin, & Snelson, 2017). This can be seen as related to the barriers that exist for adult learners where the institution primarily serves, and is structured for younger students. Such barriers will impact on a sense of belonging as adult learners negotiate an institutional understanding of learners that runs contrary to their needs, experiences, and ways of being (Fairchild, 2003).
Online students tend to have many demands on their time; the very reasons which cause them to choose this study mode can in turn cause them to withdraw (Simpson, 2004). Many online students struggle to follow a regular study schedule due to the challenges of balancing work, family and study (Blackmon & Major, 2012; Brown et al., 2015; Buck, 2016; Zembylas et al., 2008). Trying to fulfil multiple roles and juggle professional, family, social life, and study can cause online students to feel considerable stress (Brown et al., 2015; Stone & O’Shea, 2019; Zembylas et al., 2008). Kahu (2013, p. 767) describes this as lifeload which “is the sum of all the pressures a student has in their life, including university”, and is described as being a critical factor influencing student engagement. For online students, particularly those with caring responsibilities, support from family and friends is key to successful engagement enabling them to have time and space to study (Kahu et al., 2014; McGivney, 2004).
Psychosocial influences
Online student engagement is affected by a number of interrelated psychosocial influences such as teaching support, motivation, skills and self-efficacy.
Teaching support plays a critical role in online courses, with teacher engagement and connection having a positive effect on online student retention (Stone & O’Shea, 2019). Effective online teachers support their students through timely, proactive, embedded support which establishes their personal presence and actively engages students through synchronous and asynchronous methods (Rose Sr., 2018; Stone & O’Shea, 2019). Further, online student self-efficacy is a predictor of success. Kahu, Picton, & Nelson, 2019) found that student self-efficacy influenced interest and enjoyment, and behavioural engagement with learning.
According to the literature, there are a number of key skills which contribute to successful study online such as organisation, time management, study skills and digital competencies (Andrews & Tynan, 2012; Brown et al., 2015; Buck, 2016). Online learning is facilitated through digital technology and internet access. For online students having the necessary digital skills to comfortably and competently engage with the technological aspects of online learning can be a barrier to successful engagement with their online programmes (Brown et al., 2015; O’ Shea et al., 2015). In particular, new online students struggle with the online learning environment and may need time and support to sufficiently orientate themselves (Stone & O’Shea, 2019; Yoo & Huang, 2013).
Students with more developed time management skills are more likely to continue on an online course (Holder, 2007). This involves establishing a sustainable study routine which can adapt and account for problems (Brown et al., 2015; Kahu et al., 2014). In addition to time management, strong organisational skills and the ability to keep on task are key to being a successful online learner (Buck, 2016). Creating a positive study environment with a dedicated and quiet study space is an important organisational aspect for online students (Buck, 2016; Çakıroğlu, 2014). A further organisational aspect is the necessity to plan and structure their studies around their other responsibilities effectively, this can result in unusual study patterns which are highly individual such as studying late at night or early in the morning (Andrews & Tynan, 2012; Buck, 2016).
Student engagement
In Kahu’s (2013) framework, student engagement is influenced by the socio-cultural, structural, psychosocial factors discussed above. Further, online student engagement is particularly influenced by a sense of belonging. “Online learners, perhaps more so than face-to-face learners, need deliberately orchestrated, multiple opportunities to engage with others so that expression, development, tolerance and recognition of their diverse identities may in part compensate for any lack felt by not having a physical presence.” (Delahunty, Verenikina, & Jones, 2014).
Retention of online students can be facilitated by a strong sense of belonging to the institutional, programme and module community (Bowles & Brindle, 2017; Farrell & Seery 2019; Stone & O’Shea, 2019). Feeling that they belong to a community of learners has a significant impact on the learning experiences of online students (Buck, 2016; O’ Shea et al., 2015). The two factors that can support the development of a sense of community and belonging in students are establishing social presence and high levels of interaction in the course (Buck, 2016; Veletsianos & Navarrete, 2012). Developing social presence in the course gives students a greater sense of connection to each other, the teacher and the course (Veletsianos & Navarrete, 2012). Interaction and social presence can be promoted through course design which promotes active communication between students and instructors using asynchronous discussion forums and synchronous online classes (Buck, 2016). Community can also be fostered through informal student interaction such as social media, study groups, and email (O’ Shea et al., 2015). Andrews and Tynan (2012) found that informal student networks were most beneficial for participants in terms of sense of community. Informal student networks can enable online students to form positive social relationships and close ties with fellow students (Zembylas et al., 2008). The emphasis in the literature on building community is in response to the feelings of isolation often experienced by online students (Bolliger & Shepherd, 2010). Fostering a strong sense of community among students in online courses and establishing social presence can decrease students’ feelings of isolation and disconnection (Phirangee & Malec, 2017).
Engagement-disengagement outcomes
The outcomes or proximal/distal consequences of online student engagement are a positive learning experience, course completion and a sense of satisfaction (Kahu, 2013; Kahu et al., 2019; O’ Shea et al., 2015). The outcomes of online student disengagement are non-completion, withdrawal, and unsatisfactory learning experience (Kahu, 2013; Kahu et al., 2019; O’ Shea et al., 2015). The majority of students who withdraw do not return to study, emphasising the importance of targeted student success and engagement supports early in the study lifecycle (Brunton et al., 2018; Woodley & Simpson, 2014).
In summary the literature highlights the importance of viewing online student engagement through the lens of socio-cultural, structural, and psychosocial influences. There is a gap in the research on the experiences of online students in Irish higher education, with the majority of the relevant literature based in Australasia, which identifies a gap for studies such as this can address.