Peer feedback in L2 writing
Learner peer feedback (or peer review) refers to the process of collaboration between learners on improving a piece of writing. The writer may receive comments, orally or in writing, during the initial stages of brainstorming and outlining up to the very final stages when the writing is complete. According to a systematic review by Chang (2016b), previous research on peer feedback has focused on one of three major lines of research. One line of research examined the perceptions and attitudes of learners toward peer feedback as a pedagogic strategy. Another line of research examined the process of peer feedback and its different implementation procedures. A third line of research looked at the product of peer feedback and what learning outcomes are achieved from it.
In relation to product-focused peer feedback, some investigators examined how effective it can be in improving the learner’s writing. Some research suggests that learners can provide constructive comments to their peers, and the majority of this feedback is subsequently incorporated to improve the quality of writing (Li, 2018). Product-focused peer feedback has also been classified in different ways (e.g., Chang, 2012; Li & Li, 2017). One classification that is helpful in shedding light on the impact of peer feedback is to distinguish between local and global comments. Global comments involve feedback on development of ideas, purpose, organization, argumentation, and identification of audience; local comments focus more narrowly on language-related issues such as vocabulary, phrasing, syntax, and mechanics.
Some research examining this global–local distinction has explored its manifestation in online versus face-to-face settings. An early study by Hewett (2000) suggested that face-to-face feedback may place more emphasis on global areas whereas online feedback may be more concerned with local areas (see also Tuzi, 2004). However, other researchers argued that this pattern may not be inherently related to online versus face-to-face settings. That is, it is possible that some learners may overemphasize local rather than global areas simply due to lack of experience in providing feedback (Tsui & Ng, 2000) or to more familiarity with pen-and-paper-based feedback compared to software-based feedback (e.g., Bradley, 2014). Other variables affecting feedback type include cultural differences and deficient L2 rhetorical schemes (e.g., Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005). Liu and Sadler (2003) additionally argued that differences could emerge as a result of mode of interaction (i.e., synchronous vs. asynchronous). Deliberate training and modeling can also increase the quantity and quality of global comments (e.g., Chang, 2015; Min, 2005, 2006; Rahimi, 2013).
Finally, some research suggests that online peer feedback might be superior to face-to-face feedback in certain respects. Online peer feedback tends to generate a larger number of comments (Chang, 2012), and these comments tend to be more revision-oriented, thus helping learners improve their essays. The convenience that technology provides also seems to contribute to the quality of comments compared to face-to-face peer feedback (Sengupta, 2001; Tuzi, 2004). Unlike face-to-face feedback, online peer feedback seems to allow the learner to read essays more carefully at their own pace and then formulate more quality feedback. Online peer feedback has additionally been found to promote more participation of learners (Chang, 2016b; Guardado & Shi, 2007) due to the comparatively less threatening situation for learners who have concerns about their English speaking proficiency and consequently prefer to remain silent in a conventional classroom setting (Liu & Sadler, 2003). Moreover, online peer feedback may reduce stress, especially when typed-up comments can be made anonymous (e.g., Bradley, 2014; Coté, 2014; Rourke, Mendelssohn, Coleman, & Allen, 2008).
From the above review, it is clear that while research to date has investigated various aspects related to peer feedback, little attention has been paid to the writing topic itself. Some topics have more personal meaning and value, potentially eliciting a different pattern of feedback as a result. Other topics might have controversial connotations (e.g., political, religious), and so learners might engage differently with peer feedback. Peer feedback research has generally tended to avoid such controversial topics perhaps due to the sensitivity of this approach. However, the anonymity of online feedback might encourage deeper engagement in these topics, thus plausibly stimulating critical thinking.
Critical thinking in L2 writing
In our context, critical thinking can be defined as “students’ appropriate reasoning, questioning, and critical evaluation, when receiving new information or applying previous knowledge to new situations” (Liu, Lin, Chiu, & Yuan, 2001, p. 248). Because of its potential value, the topic of critical thinking has received some attention in L2 writing research (e.g., Floyd, 2011; Indah, 2017; Miri & Azizi, 2018). Critical thinking seems to be crucial to success in university-level writing courses (Cheung, Rudowicz, Kwan, & Yue, 2002; Floyd, 2011; Moore, 2004; Phillips & Bond, 2004). As Weigle (2002) states, “Writing and critical thinking are seen as closely linked, and expertise in writing is seen as an indication that students have mastered the cognitive skills required for university work” (p. 5). Critical thinking is a challenge for L2 learners not only because they need to utilize higher-order thinking skills, but also because they have to do so in a second language (Floyd, 2011).
A number of experimental studies have shown that introducing critical thinking activities to writing courses improves learners’ writing skills. In one study by Khodabakhsh, Jahandar, and Khodabandehlou (2013), the researchers examined the impact of critical thinking tasks on paragraph writing ability of L2 learners. The experimental participants, who tackled critical thinking tasks, improved their writing skills in comparison to the control participants. Likewise, Miri and Azizi (2018) investigated the impact of teaching critical thinking skills on L2 learners’ writing ability. The experimental group received more instruction and practice on critical thinking techniques. The researchers found that these critical thinking techniques significantly improved the experimental learners’ writing skills.
Engagement with peer review, particularly global feedback, seems to be an activity that has the potential to promote critical thinking. This process has been described “a critical thinking spillover effect” (Deloach & Greenlaw, 2005, p. 150) that is augmented through the use to technology. Especially when the topic of discussion is controversial, the L2 learner has the opportunity to reflect on a peer’s argumentation and critique it. To do that, the learner has to conceptualize, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate the argument presented by the essay writer. The learner is additionally expected to sustain a level of critical thinking, involving higher-order thinking and reasoning skills, even when a peer’s writing is not perfectly intelligible and when asking for clarification is not an option. Besides, since the learner is aware that the essay writer is a (mortal) peer, rather than an expert or another authority figure, this may further encourage him/her to think more critically (see also Lynch, McNamara, & Seery, 2012; McMahon, 2010; Yang, 2016, for similar arguments).
Findings by Li and Li (2017) provide some evidence that online peer feedback can stimulate critical thinking when the writing topic revolves around a controversial issue. In that study, the researchers gave 13 L2 learners two tasks: summary–response and argumentative. The summary–response task elicited slightly more local comments than global comments. When it came to the argumentative task, however, the global comments elicited were more than double the number of local comments. This pattern could be due to the fact that the argumentative task was about “an up-to-date contentious topic” (Li & Li, 2017, p. 24), thus encouraging peers to bring in their own attitudes, beliefs, and convictions. Thanks to the convenience technology affords, “the possibility to access all papers and all reviews seemed to have played an important role in sharpening their critical thinking skills by addressing global issues” (Li & Li, 2017, p. 34). Therefore, it seems plausible that engaging learners in peer review of controversial essays can be a useful strategy to stimulate global feedback.
Turnitin
Turnitin has primarily been used for originality check and plagiarism detection in a written text (Rolfe, 2011). However, Turnitin also contains two other modules, namely GradeMark and PeerMark, to help students monitor their learning and gain support in academic writing (Li, 2018; Li & Li, 2017, 2018). Some researchers have examined instructor feedback on student writing via the GradeMark tool of Turnitin, where teachers provide electronic comments on each student’s paper submitted to Turnitin. For instance, Buckley and Cowap (2013) explored 11 university instructors’ perspectives on the use of the GradeMark feature. The participants mentioned a number of strengths, most notably the ease and speed of marking certain assignment formats. Buckley and Cowap’s findings are in line with those by Henderson (2008), who noted that providing online feedback through Turnitin automates parts of the process. This for example allows the marker to avoid having to handwrite the same comments repeatedly to different learners. Instructor comments on GradeMark deal with various issues including critical aspects of assignments, referencing, grammar, and writing mechanics (Reed, Watmough, & Duvall, 2015).
PeerMark is another feature of Turnitin that has only recently attracted writing researchers’ attention (see Fig. 1). The primary function of PeerMark is for learners to read and comment on each other’s essays. When students submit their essays through Turnitin, the instructor can either start grading and giving feedback on each essay, or forward these essays to other students in the class to read and evaluate. Both essay writers and peer reviewers can either be attributed or anonymized by the class instructor. The instructor can also assign a certain number of essays for each student to review by a deadline, after which reviews can no longer be written, completed, or edited. Upon completing a review, feedback becomes immediately available to the essay writer.
Peer reviewers can read, review, score, and evaluate each essay. To do that, peer reviewers have three main tools at their disposal, namely commenting tools, composition marks, and direct questions. Commenting tools allow peer reviewers to highlight part of a text and insert a comment on it (see Fig. 2). The second tool, composition marks, offers peer reviewers a set of symbols representing common issues found in student writing. Examples of these symbols include word choice, spelling errors, and run-on sentences (see Fig. 3). Because these issues are common, composition marks allow peer reviewers to save time by dragging the relevant symbol and dropping it where the issue appears in the text. Finally, direct questions are a set of specific questions about the quality of the essay set in advance by the class instructor. Peer reviewers are expected to answer these questions, which can be free response or scale questions, as they evaluate the essay.
Our knowledge about PeerMark and how students utilize it is still limited since only a handful of studies have examined it to date. In a study by Li and Li (2017), the authors found that the majority of students’ peer feedback was revision-oriented on both local areas (e.g., grammar, mechanics, vocabulary, and format) and global areas (e.g., organization, content, and referencing). The participants also evaluated their experience with this tool favorably as reflected both by questionnaires and interviews. In another study by Li and Li (2018), both the class instructor and the students found this tool helpful in shifting the attention of students from local to global issues and from holistic advice to specific suggestions, as well as facilitating classroom management (see also Li, 2018).