Table 1 Coding scheme for the students’ behaviors

Active learning behavior

L1

Reading learning materials

Students read the learning materials

L2

Replacement of learning materials

Students actively change learning materials after reading the current learning materials

L3

Retelling

Students repeat and follow along as they study the learning materials

L4

Memorizing

Students repeatedly read, recite, or stay for more than 10 s after studying the materials

L5

Discussion

Students share and discuss among themselves what is relevant to this study

L6

Asking questions

Students ask questions to the robot

L7

Obtaining learning materials

Learning materials would be given by the robot after the student asked the robot questions

L8

Revisit/access learning materials

Students revisit material they have already learned or ask the robot a new question to obtain learning material

L9

Check out the feedback

Students actively check the feedback given by the system after answering the questions, which includes the total number of questions answered, the number of normal/incorrect answers, the analysis of the questions, and the standard answers

Passive learning behavior

P1

Other behaviors

Two students chatted about non-study related topics, played with their cell phones, and looked around during their studies

P2

Emotional up and down

Students show higher emotions, excitement, joy, eagerness to try, etc

Answer behavior

A1

Reading the questions

Students read the questions in the system

A2

Answer questions cooperatively

Students answer questions together

A3

Answer the questions competitively

Students can answer the questions through their respective interactive buttons, or through timed PKs

A4

Re-answer

Students answer again after giving a wrong response

A5

Answer correctly

After students complete their answers, the robot gives feedback that the answer is correct

A6

Answer incorrectly

After students complete their answers, the robot gives feedback that the answer is incorrect