CAVE-based immersive learning in undergraduate courses: examining the effect of group size and time of application

Table 4 Unstandardized estimates, standard errors, critical ratios and confidence intervals of the paths in the model

Construct	Path	Construct	Estimate	S. E	C. R	95% CI
VR features	←	Group size	− 0.106	0.036	− 2.941	[− 0.177, − 0.035]
Usability	←	VR features	0.939	0.180	5.213	[0.586, 1.292]
Perceived ease of use	←	Usability	0.553	0.092	5.989	[0.373, 0.733]
Motivation	←	Usability	1.240	0.199	6.226	[0.850, 1.630]
Cognitive benefits	←	Usability	2.057	0.319	6.450	[1.432, 2.682]
Control and active learning	←	Usability	1.782	0.287	6.203	[1.219, 2.345]
Motivation	←	Perceived ease of use	0.216	0.043	4.971	[0.132, 0.300]
Reflective thinking	←	Usability	1.810	0.302	5.989	[1.218, 2.402]
Presence	←	VR features	1.065	0.204	5.213	[0.665, 1.465]
Learning outcomes	←	Presence	0.100	0.043	2.320	[0.016, 0.184]
Learning outcomes	←	Motivation	0.449	0.059	7.610	[0.333, 0.565]
Learning outcomes	←	Cognitive benefits	0.217	0.047	4.649	[0.125, 0.309]
Learning outcomes	←	Control and active learning	0.127	0.042	2.986	[0.045, 0.209]
Learning outcomes	←	Reflective thinking	0.179	0.036	5.033	[0.108, 0.250]
Perceived learning effectiveness	←	Learning outcomes	1.003	0.055	18.251	[0.895, 1.111]
Satisfaction	←	Learning outcomes	0.997	0.055	18.251	[0.889, 1.105]
Performance achievement	←	Learning outcomes	0.107	0.032	3.367	[0.044, 0.170]
Perceived usefulness	←	Usability	2.587	0.400	6.467	[1.803, 3.371]
Performance achievement	←	Group size	− 0.058	0.025	− 2.373	[− 0.107, − 0.009]
Representational fidelity	←	VR features	2.612	0.420	6.226	[1.789, 3.435]
Immediacy of control	←	VR features	2.373	0.375	6.322	[1.638, 3.108]