Table 5 Summary of AI challenges and critical thinking measures against them

Information Quality

Misinformation, biased information and hallucinations from AI Sources, including social problems like Deep-Fakes

Implement critical media literacy programs to teach students how to identify and analyze biases and misinformation in AI-generated content

(Alkaissi et al., 2023; Ivanov, 2023; Katarzyna et al., 2023; Theophilou et al., 2023)

AI Dependency

Over-reliance on AI for problem solving, decision making, and cognitive tasks

Foster a problem-based learning environment where students are encouraged to first use analytical reasoning before turning to AI solutions

(Chan & Tsi, 2023; Groza & Marginean, 2023; Ivanov, 2023; Malik et al., 2023)

AI Ethics

Ethical dilemmas posed by AI, such as personal autonomy or discrimination

Integrate ethics into the curriculum with a focus on AI-related issues, encouraging debate and discussion on ethical dilemmas

(Akgun & Greenhow, 2022; Ivanov, 2023; Jeyaraman et al., 2023; Nguyen et al., 2023; Rane, 2023; Williams, 2021)

Pace of Technology

Problems with keeping up-to-date with the rapid technological changes and fears concerning displacements in the job market as well as academia

Provide workshops for career guidance that emphasize adaptability and the importance of continuous learning in an AI-evolving job landscape. Teach an agile mindset and provide sources to learn the newest developments. Emphasize non-propositional skills (“the how”) over propositional knowledge (“the what”), which is more timeless. Spot latent anxiety in students and offer guidance to reduce them

(Ahmad, 2019; Fui-Hoon Nah et al., 2023; Motlagh et al., 2023; Roll & Wylie, 2016)

Social Isolation

Decreased human interaction due to increased absorption by AI, the digital world and time on the screen

Promote activities that require teamwork and face-to-face interaction to balance the solitary nature of screen time and AI interactions

(Ali & Smith, 2015; Baker et al., 2018; Guilherme, 2019; Jelodar et al., 2021; Locsin et al., 2021)

Loss of Independent Thought and Creative Skills

Since cognitive and creative work can be handed to AI models, it may diminish students’ skills in developing original thought and creative processes

Encourage projects that require out-of-the-box thinking, using AI as a tool for assistance rather than the primary source of ideas. Use a mix of tasks where sometimes students are not allowed to use AI and where sometimes they must use AI

(Fui-Hoon Nah et al., 2023; Ivanov, 2023; Minn, 2022; Zhan et al., 2022)

Evolving Learning Capacities

AI can lead to changes in learning styles and might reduce general attention span in case of low interactivity

Adapt teaching methods to cater to diverse learning styles influenced by AI and technology, including interactive and multimodal learning approaches. AI assistants and platforms can help teachers quickly adapt to new formats

(Fui-Hoon Nah et al., 2023; Ivanov, 2023; Rane, 2023; Taylor & Boyer, 2020)

Data Privacy Concerns

In the digital world, data is constantly gathered and AI models are trained on them

Educate students about data privacy, including how their data is used by AI systems and ways to protect their digital footprint

(Attai, 2019; Kouroupis & Vagianos, 2023; Serholt et al., 2017)