Table 1 Central constructs investigated in this manuscript

Feedback

Feedback is information about performance and it is one of the most powerful factors impacting individuals’ learning outcomes (Hattie, 2009; Hattie & Timperley, 2007). It should be noted that feedback effects are in general beneficial, but can also be negative (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996, 1998). Within the feedback-intervention-theory it is stated that feedback needs to be meaningful for individuals to be effective (Kluger & DeNisi, 1998).

Comparison standards

Comparison standards are used to describe performance in different means (Rheinberg, 2001). On a criterial level performance can be compared if absolute standards exist (e.g., to achieve a driver’s license you must provide skills and abilities to participate in public traffic safely and responsibly). Besides those absolute standards performance can also be compared with own former performance (temporal comparison standard) or performance of others (social comparison standard).

Preferences for comparison standards/frame of reference/reference norm orientation

Individuals differ in their preferences for temporal and social comparison standards (Dickhäuser et al., 2017; Lüdtke et al., 2005; Retelsdorf & Günther, 2011; Rheinberg, 2001). Individuals may have low or high preferences for one or both comparison standards as those are independent. Research for preferences for comparison (often called frame of reference or reference norm orientation) has focused on the effects of preferences of comparison standards of teachers on students’ motivation and performance, stating a superiority of preferences for temporal comparisons standards.

Fit effects

Fit effects emerge if situational cues meet individual preferences. They are a common construct in psychological research (e.g., regulatory fit; Higgins, 2000) and are associated with positive effects on persistence and performance.

Fluency

Fluency (Alter & Oppenheimer, 2009) is the perceived ease of processing. This ease of processing is a mediating mechanism for many phenomena in social psychology and fluency can be affected by different facets. One facet of fluency is perceptual fluency emerging from easy to read information compared to hard to identify information (e.g., Eitel et al., 2014; Hansen et al., 2008).