Table 3 Analytical framework of cognitive engagement

Operation

 Sharing information

Providing an opinion or information

“I will prepare more videos to share with the class when things get boring.”

 Seeking information

Proposing of an original question

“The speaker only shared the first two points. Does anyone know the last three points?”

Wayfinding

 Commenting without elaboration

Commenting on others’ ideas without elaboration

“Your sharing is very interesting!”

 Requesting elaboration

Requesting for more information or inviting discussion

“I am wondering if there [are] any good examples to teach different levels of students.”

 Providing elaboration

Adding explanation or justification of one’s own ideas

(After proposing a solution). “If adults are feeling sleepy in class, they must be really tired.”

 Summarizing

Summarizing knowledge with little evaluation

“I agree with my previous classmates’ ideas, such as instant Q&A from A; separate tasks from B, and a change in topics from C.”

Sense-making

 Analyzing

Analyzing essential features, comparison, and reasons

“The discrepancy between staff needs and training requests was a key factor!”

 Evaluating

Stating a stance with justification

“Your suggestion is inspiring! Giving students more opportunities to talk could change passive listening into active participation!”

Innovation

 Reflecting

Reflecting on one’s prior experience or learning outcomes

“A big mistake I made was that I started with pronunciation and tried to teach from A to Z.”

 Creating

Creating new ideas by making suggestions, extending understanding, and introducing new points or resources

“You may initiate e-learning in a less formal setting such as a tutorial class and give teachers detailed examples of how e-learning works.”