Table 1 The five-factor model of learner–instructor interaction in online learning environments,

Communication

Instructional communication (Q & A) between learners and the instructor about topics directly related to learning contents

Support

Instructional management by the instructor, including supporting learning materials and providing feedbacks directly related to learning contents

Presence

Perceived connectivity between students and instructors during the online learning process

Guidance

Guidance by the instructor through providing encouragement and positive reactions that are not directly related to learning contents

Social intimacy

Social interaction by the instructor, such as introduction, greetings, and exchange of personal information that are not directly related to learning contents