Table 6 Mediation effects

E-learning adoption - > Digital readiness - > Academic engagement

0.052

0.000

95% LLCI: 0.028, ULCI; 0.080

E-learning attitude - > Digital readiness - > Academic engagement

0.041

0.020

95% LLCI: 0.011, ULCI; 0.079

E-learning adoption - > Digital readiness - > Academic engagement - > Academic achievement

0.015

0.001

95% LLCI: 0.008, ULCI; 0.024

E-learning attitude - > Digital readiness - > Academic engagement - > Academic achievement

0.012

0.026

95% LLCI: 0.003, ULCI; 0.024

E-learning adoption - > Academic engagement - > Academic achievement

0.038

0.009

95% LLCI: 0.010, ULCI; 0.066

E-learning attitude - > Academic engagement - > Academic achievement

0.006

0.693

95% LLCI: −0.023, ULCI; 0.036